f values, norms, and propositions that govern human behavior. Virtue ethics, for example, are a system of ethics based on the concept of a good person rather than a right action. Duty ethics refer to obligations that humans incur as part of being human and being part of a social system. Schick and Vaughn (1999) suggest that ethical decisions are made consciously and unconsciously by human beings each and every day. With respect to environmental science, ethics comes into play by helping to shape the goals and objectives of scientific research, resulting policies, and the human activities (e.g., oil and natural gas exploration and production and refining) that directly shape the state of the environment.
According to Rose (2002), environmental science and scientific research pose significant problems in that while scientific research has brought gains to our knowledge of the environment, the motivations for most such research tend systematically to run counter to environmental protection. Environmental science works to develop both an understanding of many features of the physical environment and the knowledge, skills, and techniques required to capitalize upon the resources contained in the environment. Ideally, as Park (2003) has pointed out, environmental science orients itself toward the rational use of natural resources in a manner designed to do as little damage to the environment as possible. In reality, environmental sciences in fields such as geology, chemistry, and biology often foster environmental degradation, damaging the ecosystems of the planet; similarly, environmental science in some manifestations or in the hands of certain scientists may take a proactive stance regarding environmentalism, but this is not always the case (Rose, 2002).
From the ethical perspective, Kalichman (2003) proposes that it is important to recognize that all types of scientific research should be oriented toward producing a measura...