groups (Grant and Docherty, 1992, pp. 145-166; Vila, 1986, pp. 123-145). The programs address the needs of the Basques and the Catalans. These bilingual education programs are intended to reinforce cultural identity in the Basque Autonomous Region and Catalonia (also an autonomous region), and to revitalize the Basque and Catalan languages (Tarrow, 1990, pp. 49-58). The Spanish bilingual education policy, however, makes no provision for the teaching of the country's large Gypsy population in its first language (Mar-Molinero, 1994, p. 323). The Catalans and the Basques, however, represent the largest population minorities in Spain (Petherbridge-Hernandez and Raby, 1993, pp. 31-49). Each of these population groups is also characterized by strong nationalist sentiments, a fact that causes bilingual education programs designed to reinforce these minority cultures to be unpopular with the Spanish majority population.
Cultural renaissance for the Catalans and the Basques began in the late-nineteenth century, and lasted until the advent of the Franco dictatorship in 1939 (Petherbridge-Hernandez and Raby, 1993, pp. 31-49). The Franco regime suppressed all manifestations of nationalism in the Basque region and Catalonia including the teaching of or teaching the first languages of the two regions. During the Franco era, all official government records were maintained in Castilian and all government business was conducted in Castilian throughout Spain. Street and store signs in the Basque Region and Catalonia, as well as all radio broadcasts were required to be in Castilian. Church sermons, however, were allowed to be delivered in Basque and Catalan. Penalties for noncompliance with the language laws included imprisonment and heavy monetary fines. School teachers were dismissed from their positions if the Basque or Catalan languages were used in classrooms. Both the Basque and the Catalan communities established clandestine language...