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The Muslim conquerors were far outnumbered by the populations they conquered. They established in Spain an Islamic state in which the Caliph in Damascus and his representative in the Muslim Spanish capital Cordoba and Islamic law and religion were supreme. Non-Muslims suffered from various disabilities. They could not serve in the armed forces. Under the Covenant of Omar, non-Muslims were not supposed to hold public office. A variety of special taxes were imposed on non-Muslims, including a capitation or head tax, special assessments on minority communities, and on rich individuals as well as inheritance taxes. Despite these restrictions and burdens, those minorities who were 'people of the book,' followers of other monotheistic religions, such as Christians and Jews, were dhimmis, protected minorities, who were free to practice their religion provided they did not try to convert Muslims or engage in public processions or displays. In Spain, very substantial autonomy was accorded t
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