Deontology as developed in the philosophical system of Immanuel Kant and utilitarianism as presented by both Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill together form the foundation on which much of modern ethical reasoning is based. Of the two approaches, Kant's deontological analysis of the categorical and hypothetical imperatives provides the best foundation on which individuals as well as entire groups can base their moral and ethical decisionmaking. While utilitarianism is of value in informing consequentialist decisions, Kant's formula for determining what is and is not morally valid does not require any reference to a calculus, hedonistic or otherwise.
Kant (50) introduces his discussion by asking the question of "whether it is not of the most utmost necessity to construct a pure moral philosophy" and goes on to state that "if a law is to have moral force, that is, to be the basis of an obligation, it must carry with it absolute necessity." Any moral principle that Kant (53) therefore introduces must be based upon necessary rather than optional actions. It must therefore represent some type of imperative, a necessary and obligatory act or attitude which guides the will. Kant (57) notes that "reason is not competent to guide the will with certainty in regard to its objects and the satisfaction of all our needs." Consequently, it is necessary to provide a metaphysics of morals which recognizes that securing one's own happiness is at least an indirect duty (Kant 60). However, Kant (61) cautions that "an action done from duty derives its moral worth, not from the purpose which is to be attained by it, but from the maxim by which it is determined."
Kant proposes the existence of two imperatives: one categorical (with alternative formulations) and one hypothetical. According to Kant (74), "the categorical imperative would be that which represented an action as necessary of itself without reference to another end." Conv...